The tem Specific Learning Disability (SLD): Tracing the Historical Evolution and confusion

           Dr. Renu Malaviya,

        Associate Prof, Deptt. Of Education,Lady Irwin College    (University of Delhi)

 The evolution of definitions of LD can be traced to the turn of the last century and is closely linked concepts of organically based behavioural disorders.  The concept of LD arose from observations of children who were hyperactive and impulsive; it was often presumed that the cause of these unexpected behaviour disorders was constitutional in origin. Thus, these children were described with terms such as organic driveness syndrome, minimal brain injury,   (Doris, 1993; Rutter, 1982; Satz & Fletcher, 1980)

Way back in the 18^th and the 19^th century, children with learning disabilities were often diagnosed and considered to have “minimal brain dysfunction”. Further testing would indicate that the children tended to show some neurological difficulties. Yet these neurological difficulties seem to vary from child to child and in unpredictable ways. The experts of that era realized that there appeared to be no predictable structure to these neurological difficulties. Attempts at correlations with reference to the size of the brain, pattern of blood flow to the brain, nerve impulse to the brain and so on were studied. Yet no consistent structures were indentified. Sometimes the diagnosis would indicate, perceptual deficits’. Yet attempts to improve on the eye-hand coordination or on the visual scanning skills would not work. All this did leave the scientific world a little perplexed.

Terms such as “ minimum brain dysfunction”, “ stephosymbolia” ( reversal of letters), hyperactive and impulsive, organic driveness syndrome and so on were extensively being used for these children. (Doris, 1993; Rutter, 1982; Satz & Fletcher, 1980)

In 1963 Samual Kirk at Chicago coined the term “learning disability”. (1962, cited in Streissguth, Bookstein, Sampson, & Barr, 1993, p.144). He urged the scientific community to throw away the other previously used terminologies. The term learning disability had its advantages:

·         It was a term which parents and teachers could understand

·         It moved the concepts out of the realm of only neurology and medicine towards the field of education.

·         Now the focus could be more towards the issues related to information and language processing.

·         The educators begin to work upon finding special education techniques.

According to Samuel Kirk, (1962):

‘A learning disability refers to a retardation, disorder, or delayed development in one or more of the processes of speech, language, reading, spelling, writing, or arithmetic resulting from a possible cerebral dysfunction and/or emotional or behavioral disturbance and not from mental retardation, sensory deprivation, or cultural or instruction factors.’

 [Kirk, S. A. (1962). Educating exceptional children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. (p. 261).]

As the term gained rapid acceptance, it facilitated another important move. The  establishment of the term LD ( Learning Disability) as a special education category, enabled children with LD to be included in being provided special  services related to education and beyond.  As of earlier they were excluded from the special services as their learning characteristics did not correspond to existing categories.  This in itself was a major step in the perspectives related to this disability.

In 1963, Samuel Kirk addressed a gathering of anxious parents in Chicago, (Streissguth, Bookstein, Sampson, & Barr, 1993) at which for the first time used publicly the term learning disabilities to describe the children. He stated at the gathering

Dyslexics are a specific group of children, adolescents and adults who have problems in learning. These problems are generally in the area of reading, writing, spellings and mathematics. A learning disability is found across all ages and in all socio-economic classes. It is not a-typical of mental retardation as is mistaken by many people; in fact the IQ scores of these children can be very high.

At the end of 1950’s and early 1960’s the need to focus on, ‘Education for all” started to emerge in Great Britain and the United States of America in the 1960s. At that time the difficulty that children were facing with learning in the school system began to attract the attention of educationist and psychologist seriously. As the momentum of getting each and every child into school increased, the number of ‘intelligent’ and “able bodied” children, who were unable to cope with learning in school especially with reading, writing and mathematics also increased. These children were otherwise bright, fairly articulate and had no sensory or visual handicap.

As “Education for All” gained momentum in Great Britain,  experience as well as effective school teachers and principals observed that their were children who otherwise appeared bright, were articulate and generally appeared to be learning, yet when it came to examinations they would repeatedly not do well. They would not be able to read well and it may be remembered that at that point of time getting the children to read aloud in class was a major way of teaching . There are documentations of school principals of that era who have indicated their concern about these children who according to them were defiantly intelligent but yet were failing repeatedly. Hence came in the term “dyslexia” (Dys means difficulty and lexia means words). Gradually as each and every child was now in the school system in Great Britain, there came in a realization that there were another set of children who even if they were okay with the age standard norm for reading, just could not write well. No amount of training helped them become really better. The new term that came into existence was dysgraphia (Dys means difficulty and graphia indicating writing)  and further as the school system improved and more resources were pumped into the school system another set of children were identified who came to be known as dyscalculia (Dys means difficulty and calculia indicating arithmetic).

Now the first term was dyslexia, and hence just as a petname/family name that many of us have, dyslexia in the mass memory continued to used as the umbrella term for dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, aphasia and so on.

Now around this time there was a lot of migration from Great Britain to the new land called USA. The psychologist, educationist who migrated there for greener pastors took with them the knowledge. They also took with the knowledge related to the term MR (mental retardation). Therein the term MR was being reconsidered as the terminology retardation was being now considered belittling. Therein the term MR was being replaced with LD (learning disabilities).

Now as the awareness increased in South Asia, it lead to  certain amount of confusion. There was a intermixing of the terminologies Mental Retardation (MR), Learning Disabilities (LD) and Learning Difficulties (LD). Hence came in the confusion that a MR is also LD or vice a versa. It needs a bit of minute observation as to why this happened and continues to happen. The abbreviation LD stands for both learning disabilities (LD) and learning difficulty (LD).

When we say learning difficulty it implies that there is a difficulty in learning which can be removed or which may not be possible to remove. For example if I am new to learning a language say French, I will have learning difficulty (LD) and NOT learning disability (LD). If my teacher does not know how to teach well than I will face learning difficulty (LD) and NOT learning disability (LD).

So a child with Mental retardation ( Intellectual disability) will have a learning disability and so will a child with dyslexia have a learning disability.

Oh! Can you now observe that type of confusion that the terminologies have created? Is dyslexia only dyslexia or is dyslexia also dygraphia, dyscalculia , aphaisa and others???? Hence as of now in South Asia the umbrella term used for ‘disability’ in reading, writing, arithmetic etc is Specific Learning Disability (SLD).  

         The confusion has not ended as yet. I can almost hear many of you saying SLD is NOT a disability and so even ASD is NOT a disability. Well! Well ! I completely agree with you, these are the off shoots of diversities in the brain structures. In my next article I will deal with the brain diversities and whether it is learning difficulties (LD), learning disabilities (LD) or Learning diversities (LD).

Before if I sign off, I would also want to touch on the term “Slow Learner” . This it as of now a sub-classification of Intellectual Disability or is it any one who is learning slowing. If it is anyone who is learning slowing than could it be the cause of faculty teaching, limitations of the child’s physical-socio-economic- cultural environment??? If yes than who is the “slow”, the child or the teacher or the parent?????

Slow learner

Learning disability

Learning difficulty

Learning deviance

Sp learning disability

MR

ASDD

Management of ADHD

Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) is the most serious behavioural problems not only among the children with special needs, but also among the normal children. It requires timely and effective interventions. Most of the professional especially clinical psychologists are less aware about different modalities of effective treatment. This paper orients them about the different modalities of treatment with details.

Comprehensive Treatment for ADHD should always include a strong psychosocial component. Most professionals believe that effective psychosocial treatment is the backbone of good treatment for ADHD. Apart from pharmacotherapy, following psychosocial modalities are found most effective in the treatment of ADHD.

(1)   Behavioural Intervention:

There are three parts of effective behavioural interventions for ADHD children—

(i)                 parent training,

(ii)               school interventions, and

(iii)             child-focused treatments.

Four points apply to all three parts:

(1) Always start with goals that the child can achieve and improve in small steps (e.g., “baby steps”);

(2) Always be consistent—across different times of the day, different settings, and different people;

 (3)ADHD is a chronic problem for the individual and treatments need to be implemented over the long duration—not just for a few months; and

(4) Teaching and learning new skills take time, and children’s improvement will be gradual with behaviour modification.

(i) Parent Training:

The first session is often devoted to an overview of the diagnosis, causes, nature, and prognosis of ADHD. Thereafter, in group or individual sessions, parents learn a variety of techniques, some of which they may be already using at home but not as consistently or correctly as needed. Parents go home and implement what they learn in sessions during the week, and return to the parenting session the following week to discuss progress, problem solve, and learn a new technique.

The topics covered in a typical series of parent training sessions include the following topics in sequence.

1. Establishing house rules and structure

Ø  Posted chore lists

Ø  Posted morning and evening routines

Ø  Posted House Rules

Ø  Review until child has learned them

2. Learning to praise appropriate behaviours (praise good behaviour at least five times as often as bad behaviour is criticized) and ignore mild inappropriate behaviours.

3. Using appropriate commands

o   Obtain the child's attention: say the child's name first

o   Use command not question language (“Don’t you want to be good” is a bad command!)

o   Be specific, describing exactly what the child is supposed to do (at the grocery checkout line “be good” is not a good command! “Stand next to me and do not touch anything” is more specific!)

o   Be brief and appropriate to the child's age

o   State consequences and always follow through (praise compliance and provide consequences for noncompliance)

o   Have a firm but neutral (not angry) tone of voice

4. Using when………..then contingencies

o   Give access to desired activities when the child has completed a less desired activity (e.g., ride bike when finished homework; watch TV when finished evening chores, going out with friends after completed yard work)

o   For younger children, important to have rewarding activity occur immediately

5. Planning ahead and working with children in public places

o   Explain situation to child before activity occurs

o   Establish ground rules, rewards, and consequences

6. Time out from positive reinforcement

o   Assign short times away from preferred activities when the child has violated expectations or rules

o   Give time off for appropriate behaviour during time out and lengthen time for noncompliance with time out

o   Base times on children's ages—shorter for younger children—e.g., one minute for each year of age

7. Daily Charts—Point/token systems with rewards and consequences

o   Make charts with home rules/goals and post prominently in house

o   Establish system for rewards for following home rules and consequences for violations

o   Nickel jar for noncompliance or talking back (e.g., put a nickel in for each compliance, remove two for noncompliance)

o   Home Daily Report Card (see target list and creating a Daily Report Card for the home

8. School-home note system for rewarding behaviour at school and tracking homework (see description below in School Interventions)

There are many other techniques that are part of a good behavioural parenting program. Those listed above are included in almost all of the good programs. Some families can learn these skills quickly in the course of 8 or 10 meetings, while other families—often those with the most severely impaired children—require more time and energy.

(ii) School Interventions

The following list includes typical classroom behavioural management procedures. They are arranged in order from mildest and least restrictive to more intensive and most restrictive procedures. Some of these programs may be included in Individualized Educational Programs that may apply to ADHD children

Typically an intervention is individualized and consists of several components based on the child’s needs, the classroom resources, and the teacher’s skills and preferences.

1. Classroom rules and structure

o   Typical classroom rules:

Ø  Be respectful of others

Ø  Obey adults

Ø  Work quietly

Ø  Stay in assigned seat/area

Ø  Use materials appropriately

Ø  Raise hand to speak or ask for help

Ø  Stay on task/complete assignments

o   Post rules and review before each class until learned

o   Make rules objective and measurable

o   Number of rules depends on developmental level

o   Establish a predictable environment

o   Enhance children’s organization (folders/charts for work)

o   Evaluate rule-following and give feedback/consequences consistently

o   Tailor frequency of feedback to child’s developmental level

2. Praise appropriate behaviours and ignore mild inappropriate behaviours that are not reinforced by peer attention

o   Use at least five times as many praises as negative comments.

o   Use commands/reprimands to cue positive comments for children who are behaving appropriately—that is, find children who can be praised each time a reprimand or command is given to a child who is misbehaving.

3. Appropriate commands (clear, specific, manageable) and private reprimands (at child’s desk as much as possible)—same characteristics as for good commands for parents described above.

4. Accommodations and structure for individual child (e.g., desk placement, task sheet)

o   Structure the classroom to maximize the child’s success

o   Sit by teacher to facilitate monitoring

o   Pair with peer to help copy assignments from board

o   Break assignments into small chunks

o   Give frequent and immediate feedback

o   Require corrections before new work

5. Increase academic performance

o   Focus on increasing completion and accuracy on work

o   Provide task choices

o   Peer tutoring

o   Computer-assisted instruction

Such interventions have the advantage of being proactive (i.e., could prevent problematic behaviour from occurring) and can be implemented by individuals other than the classroom teachers (e.g., peers, classroom aide). When disruptive behaviour is not the primary difficulty, academic interventions sometimes lead to improvements in behaviour that are equivalent to gains associated with more intensive classroom behavioural strategies.

6. When…….then contingencies (e.g., recess time contingent upon completing work, staying after school to complete work before dismissal, assigning less desirable work prior to more desirable assignments, require assignment completion in study hall before allowing free time) (same guidelines as for parents described above)

7. Daily School-Home Report Card - Means of identifying, monitoring, and changing classroom problems

o   Tool for parents and teacher to communicate regularly

o   Individualized target behaviours determined by teacher

o   Teachers evaluate targets at school and send DRC home with the child

o   Parents provide home-based rewards; more rewards for better performance and fewer for lesser performance

o   Continually monitor and make adjustments to targets and criteria as behavior improves or new problems develop

o   Always used in the context of other behavioral components (commands, praise, rules, academic programs)

o   Cost little and take minimal teacher time

8. Behaviour chart/reward and consequence program (point or token system) for the target child

o   Establish target behaviours and ensure child knows behaviours and goals (e.g., list on index card taped to desk)

o   Establish rewards for meeting target behaviours

o   Monitor child and give feedback

o   Reward immediately for young children

o   Use points, tokens, stars that can later be exchanged for rewards

9. Class wide interventions and group contingencies

o   Establish goals for the class as well as the individual

o   Establish rewards for appropriate behaviour that anyone in class can earn (e.g., class lottery, jelly bean jar, wacky bucks)

o   Establish reward system in which whole class (or subset of class) earns rewards based on entire class functioning (e.g., Good Behaviour Game) or ADHD child’s functioning (e.g., class earns reward if ADHD child makes goals)

o   Encourages children to help one another because everyone can be rewarded

o   Easier for teacher than individual programs because improves whole class

o   Tailor frequency of rewards/consequences to children’s developmental level

10. Time out (classroom, office); a program in which a child is removed from the ongoing activity for a few minutes (less for younger children and more for older) when he or she misbehaves (same guidelines as for parents described above)

11. School-wide programs—e.g., discipline plans that are school-wide can be structured to minimize the problems experienced by ADHD children at the same time as they help manage the behaviour of all children in a school.

(iii) Child Interventions

Nonspecific talk or play therapy in a therapist’s office is not a form of treatment with scientific support for children with ADHD. Instead, child-based treatments for ADHD with a scientific basis are those that focus on peer relationships and that typically occur in group settings outside of the therapist’s office. Very often, children with ADHD have serious disturbances in peer relationships, and those problems are very strong predictors of long-term outcomes. Children whose difficulties with peers are overcome will have considerably better long-term outcomes than those whose peer relationships remain problematic. Thus, intervention for peer relationships is a critical component of treatment for children with ADHD and it is the focus of child-based treatments.

There are five forms of intervention for peer relationships, listed below.

1. Systematic teaching of social skills

o   Cooperation

o   Communication

o   Being positive and friendly

o   Participation

o   Helping/sharing

o   Giving compliments

o   Coping with teasing

2. Social problem solving

o   Identifying problem

o   Brainstorming solutions

o   Choosing best solution

o   Planning implementation

o   Evaluating outcome

3. Teaching other behavioural competencies that other children consider important

o   Sports skills

o   Rules of sports

o   Board game rules

o   Good sportsmanship and good team membership

4. Decreasing undesirable and antisocial behaviours

o   Target bossy, intrusive, aggressive, and other disruptive behaviours that children with ADHD exhibit with peers

o   Establish reward/consequence program to reduce these behaviours and to replace with prosocial behaviours taught in social skills training

5. Developing a close friendship

o   Develop program to help child with ADHD develop a close friendship with another child

o   Work with family and teacher to facilitate the relationship

o   May serve an important role in improving long-term outcomes

(2)   Working memory training

Many of the problems shown by children with ADHD are linked with deficits in working memory (or short-term memory). Training this memory may diminish some of symptoms of ADHD. In a study by Klingberg et al., children with ADHD who completed a computerized training program for working memory reported a decrease in ADHD symptoms and performed better on working memory tests than the control group. Some researchers attribute this to an improvement in working memory generally, while others believe it is merely the natural effect of practice.

(3)   Timers

Timers have been found to be effective for allowing people with ADHD to concentrate more effectively on the task at hand. When a target is set, one method is to only turn the timer on whilst working on the given task. A physical stopwatch or an online timer may be used.

(4)   Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback (NF) or EEG biofeedback is a treatment strategy used for children, adolescents and adults with ADHD. The human brain emits electrical energy which is measured with electrodes. Neurofeedback alerts the patient when beta waves are present. This theory believes that those with ADHD can train themselves to decrease ADHD symptoms.

No serious adverse side effects from neurofeedback have been reported. Research into neurofeedback has been limited and of low quality. While there is some indication on the effectiveness of biofeedback it is not conclusive: several studies have yielded positive results, however the best designed ones have either shown reduced effects or non-existing ones.

(5)   Aerobic fitness

Aerobic fitness may improve cognitive functioning and neural organization related to executive control during pre-adolescent development, though more studies are needed in this area. One study suggests that athletic performance in boys with ADHD may increase peer acceptance when accompanied by fewer negative behaviors.

(6)   Massage Therapy

For children and adolescents with ADHD, pediatric massage therapy has been found to improve mood and increase on-task behaviors, while reducing anxiety and hyperactivity.

(7)   Art Therapy

Art is thought by some to be an effective therapy for some of the symptoms of ADHD^.

(8)   Media

Preliminary studies have supported the idea that playing video games is a form of neurofeedback, which helps those with ADHD self-regulate and improve learning. On the other hand ADHD may experience great difficulty disengaging from the game, which may in turn negate any benefits gained from these activities, and time management skills may be negatively impacted as well.

(9)   Nature:

Children who spend time outdoors in natural settings, such as parks, seem to display fewer symptoms of ADHD, which has been dubbed "Green Therapy".

(10)                       Dietary supplements:

Omega-3 supplementation (seal, fish or krill oil) may reduce ADHD symptoms.

Magnesium and vitamin B₆ (pyridoxine) - In 2006, a study demonstrated that children with autism/ADHD had significantly lower magnesium than controls, and that the correction of this deficit was therapeutic. Mousain-Bosc et al. showed that children with ADHD (n =46) had significantly lower red blood cell magnesium levels than controls (n =30). Intervention with magnesium and vitamin B₆ reduced hyperactivity, /aggressiveness and improved school attention.

TOWARDS SUCCESSFUL VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION FOR PERSONS WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

       

                                                                                                  Dr. Usha Grover

                                                                                     Sr. Lecturer (special education)                      

                                                                                          Former Officer In-charge

                                                                                    NIMH Regional Centre New Delhi

                                                                                                                                                                  

Keywords

PWID               –          persons with intellectual disability

PWD                -           Persons with Disability

UNCRPD           –          United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

                               

Introduction  

Historically it was believed that a person with intellectual disability (PWID) were not very productive as their adaptive abilities did not commensurate with the person of average intelligence. It was also believed that they were not to be brought to the notice of the community, they should be kept within the four walls and all they needed were food, clothing, shelter, and activities to take care of their leisure. However, with the increased awareness, development in the service model and advancement in the technology coupled with the strength of rehabilitation legislation, gradually the PWID are now engaged in open employment with either some support or no support.

However, the progress in this regard is left much to be desired. There is a great need to improve the rehabilitation services, so that, most of the PWID receive vocational training and employment.

Definition of vocational rehabilitation

Vocational rehabilitation means that part of continuous and coordinated process of rehabilitation, which involves the provision of those vocational services, e.g. vocational guidance, vocational training and selective placement, designed to enable a person with disability (PWD) to secure and retain suitable employment.

The current status of vocational rehabilitation:-

According to NSSO 58^th Round Survey on usual activities of the PWD three categories are given below:

—  Labour force:

Ø  working or being engaged in economic activities (work) (employed);

Ø  Not engaged in economic activities (work) but available for work (unemployed).

—  Out of labour force:

Ø  Not engaged in work and also not available for work.

The data obtained by the survey is as follows:

Table 01: Per 1000 distribution of PWID by broad usual activity status for each sex

PWID	Employed	Unemployed	Out of Labour Force
Male	81	1	918
Female	16	0	984

Table 02: Per 1000 distribution of PWD by broad usual activity status

Disability	Employed	Unemployed	Out of Labour Force
intellectual disability	56	1	943
Mental Illness	126	1	873
With Blindness	91	2	907
With Low Vision	188	3	809
Hearing Impairment	343	4	653
Speech	263	7	730
Locomotor Disability	282	10	708

Current scene of vocational rehabilitation

Ø  Above data (table 01) reveals that only 08% of males with intellectual disability are employed where as 92% are out of labour force. Also, only 1.6% of females with intellectual disability are employed where as 98.4% are out of labour force. The data also depicts that number of females with intellectual disability is much less than the number of males with intellectual disability. However, there is no data about how many of these out of labour PWID have undergone appropriate schooling and vocational training.

Ø  Cross disability comparison depicts that out of all the categories the number of PWID employed is minimum whereas out of labour force is maximum. As per PWD Act, 1995 there is a provision of 03% reservation in Govt. Jobs identified for PWD (01% HI, 01% VI and 01% OH). But, PWID are not included in this reservation provision due to which finding suitable jobs is more challenging for them.

Ø  There is no agenda about transition in most of the schools.

Ø  No survey about where PWID go after they leave school.

Ø  No latest survey regarding number of adult training centre or vocational training centres in India.

Ø  Jobs should be identified for PWID as per the changing needs and demands of society.

Ø  Parents turn to their local community for vocational training & job placement assistance.

Ø  Majority are comfortable if their children are permitted to continue special school by engaging them in time pass activities.

Ø  Few students with intellectual disability join sheltered workshop.

Ø  Few get community employment.

Ø  Majority of the students with intellectual disability are unemployed and are at home.

UNCRPD (Article 27)

States Parties recognize the right of PWDs to work, on an equal basis with others; this includes the right to the opportunity to gain a living by work freely chosen or accepted in a labour market and work environment that is open, inclusive and accessible to PWDs. States Parties shall safeguard and promote the realization of the right to work, including for those who acquire a disability during the course of employment, by taking appropriate steps, including through legislation.

The writer has appealed to all the service providers especially those working with adults having intellectual disability; to ‘Switch Gear’ if ‘Providing a Right to Work’ to persons with Intellectual Disability has to become a reality. Following ingredients for successful vocational rehabilitation are suggested.

Ingredient for successful vocational rehabilitation

                                        

                                           S w i t c h       G e a r

S     survey                      

Investigate the status of rehabilitation services available for PWID. Survey the numbers of students for whom the rehabilitation services are required also find out how many vocational training centers or adult training centers are available for this population.

W    wider range of vocational trades

Think out of the box occupations (non-traditional). Instead of including traditional trades like- stationery making, candle making, screen printing etc. there should be a shift to non-traditional occupation such as manufacturing process industry, agriculture, agro based industry, food processing (pickle making, jam making etc), printing services, sales outlets and self or group employment activities etc. Non-traditional activities have edge over the traditional ones as the PWID will get an opportunity in the competitive world. This will enhance their skills and earning capacity and opportunity of employment.

Also, there is a need to simplify various professional training courses offered by different institutions like- Polytechnics, ITI’s etc. so that, PWID can be reasonably accommodated in these courses. The machinery and equipments needs to be modified or adopted to enhance accessibility for PWID.

I      Industry and commerce

Have linkages with industry and commerce. Explore the types of the jobs in the industry as suitable for PWID. The scope of open employment lies in the industry and commerce. Industry and commerce will come forward if they are able to see the advantage of employing a PWID in such jobs where they are suitable. Appropriate orientation program need to be designed in this regard. Allow PWID to show case their abilities at various industries.

T     Transitional             Planning      

Make transitional planning an important agenda item for discussion. While academic achievement is always considered important but over emphasis on this at the cost of more beneficial functional training is undesirable. The ultimate goal of the rehabilitation is to support the people for employment success and independent living.

Give vocational training throughout the primary, secondary and prevocational level of schooling, so that, the child had mastered work force readiness skills. Systematic school instruction is the foundation of vocational training and employment. Special school curriculum includes the prevocational/occupational aspects. Children with intellectual disability are taught the daily living skills through the functional curriculum from preprimary to prevocational levels. The functional curriculum equips the children with intellectual disability with necessary work readiness skills.

NIMH has developed “NIMH Transition Model” for the rehabilitation of PWID. However, more models for transition from school to work should be researched and successful models be replicated.

                                                                       

Monitoring should be done on regular basis. Continuous evaluation is part and parcels of any successful program to assess the strength and limitations, so that, modifications can be made.

C    Certification of vocational courses

      

Development of curriculum for vocational courses should be done. This will help the PWID to master the required skills in the job market. These courses should be certified by competent authority of institutions such as ITI’s, Polytechnics etc. so that, it is easy to PWID to get jobs.

H    Human Resource  

Prepare trained human resource for vocational training centres. The situation with regard to trained human resource in vocational training is comparably low. There are only few centres offering the course of Diploma in Vocational Training and Employment. There is therefore acute need to promote the training centres for the vocational instructors and the vocational units in the field, so that, adults with intellectual disability coming out of the school system are in a planned way imparted with vocational skills and adult social skills for the ultimate goal of living independently (Wehman and Hill, 1985)

It has been observed that most of the vocational training centres are running without qualified vocational instructors which are detrimental to the development of the PWID. The studies have revealed that on the job training and job placement is discouragingly low which can be attributed to be absence of qualified vocational instructors at the centre. It is therefore desirable that every vocational training and placement centre should engage professionals specifically trained in vocational training of PWID.

G    Ground work          

Prepare the society Transition planning should be done with cooperation with parents & community members. More adult training centre and vocational training centres must be initiated.

           There is a need for involvement of parents, social workers, vocational instructors and supervisors at the work site, the employers and the rehabilitation therapist and work as a team.

Prepare the society

A society need to be prepare, so that, PWID are accepted with their functional abilities as much as the other citizens. Public education programs, Nukkad Natikas, depicting the success stories on the capability of PWID should be developed.

Have a section for vocational training in every special school and open up industrial training institutions for PWID.

It is often observed that the responsibility of special school ceases after graduating the students out of the education system as a result of which the PWID after the school spend their lifetime with the family without any productive life. In order to induce knowledge of work and putting the students on the work of their choice it is necessary that every special school provide vocational training. By doing so all the students coming out of the school system who usually dropout will receive vocational training and placement.

Open up special employment exchanges and they should facilitate the job placement of PWID by maintaining special register and making special efforts.

E     Effective Team work

Use team approach for quality services in rehabilitation process. Team work plays an important role in designing the vocational training and placement program for the PWID. It is an interdisciplinary effort, the success of which depends on effective team work (Rao and Sivakumar, 2003). There is a need for involvement of parents, social workers, vocational instructors and supervisors at the work site, the employers and the rehabilitation therapist and work as a team.

A        Assessment, planning & monitoring   

            Assessment planning and monitoring is the key for successful post school transition. The assessment should address the following areas:

o   Academic skills.

o   Communication.

o   Social and interpersonal.

o   Occupational and vocational.

Without comprehensive assessment of student skills it is difficult to identify the needs that should be addressed in the student transition plan. Also, community assessment is very important for effective transition planning. Detailed SWOT (Strength Weakness Opportunity and Threats) analysis for the community should be done while planning the vocational rehabilitation for PWID. After implementation of training program monitoring should be done on regular basis. Continuous evaluations is part and parcel of any successful program to assess the strength and limitations, so that, modifications can be made.

R    Research     

Research on identification of suitable jobs should be taken up. Usually the job designed by the PWID were related to paper, clothes, chemical, and food items. Book binding, envelope making, file making, file molding, greeting cards making, screen printing, are paper related. In the cloth section embroidery, hand block painting, stitching, waiving and tailoring are some trades. Agarbatti making, chalk making, phenyl making, washing power etc. are known as chemical based trades. Food items consist of pickle making and tea making.  It is advisable to shift from the traditional occupation to non-traditional occupation, so that, PWID are recognized as productive workers.  

More avenues for competitive and supportive employment opened up. The scope of competitive and supporting employment is larger than the sheltered workshop employment. The PWID can attained the quality of life to the extent possible as open employment will enhance their self image, social fraternity at the work place the economic independence, resulting in self sufficiency.

                                                     Conclusion

           

   As stated under UNCRPD Article 27 (Work and employment) persons with disabilities have right to work, on an equal basis with others; this includes the right to the opportunity to gain a living by work freely chosen or accepted in a labour market and work environment that is open, inclusive and accessible to persons with disabilities. In order to meet this goal, service providers need to think out of the box and provide what is the need of the hour in vocational areas. We need to change gear and change our thinking for better empowerment of adults with intellectual disability.

As highlighted in the article there is a need for training in non-traditional localized trades which have effective marketing and have connections with the industry, so that, adults with intellectual disability find a place to work. For making this dream is reality lot of ground work and research is essential so that, required human resource can be prepared and goals towards vocational rehabilitation may be achieved.

References :

Narayan,  J. (1990), Vocational Training and Employment of Persons with Mental Retardation. National  Institute for the Mentally Handicapped, Secunderabad.

Thressea Kutty, A.T and Govinda Rao, L. (2001). Curriculum for Vocational Education - Transition of

              Persons with Mental Retardation from School to work, National Institute for the Mentally

              Handicapped, Secunderabad.

Thressea Kutty, A.T and Govinda Rao, L. (2001). Transition of Persons with Mental Retardation from

              School to work – A Guide, National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped, Secunderabad.

Disabled Persons in India, NSSO 58^th Round Survey Report (July – December 2012)